Brain Structures Essay

What general brain structures are involved in motivation and emotion? What role do these structures play in motivation and emotion?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In the field of psychological and anatomical biology, the behavioral characteristics of the human psychology are mainly related to the activities and processes in the different regions and structure of the human brain. Physiologically, the brain controls the different behavior, mood, and other personal characteristics of the person through the functions and hormonal changes in the involved brain regions.   Included in these psychological characteristics are motivation and emotion wherein the development and formulation of these behavioral patterns are rooted n the psychobiological structure of the brain.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The aspect of motivation is mainly guided by two dominant concepts namely the reward system (appetitive motivation) and the fight or plea system (aversive motivation). Both of these psychological systems are guided by the hormonal changes and activities in the involved brain region. In particular, motivation in the human behavior is guided by the pleasure and reward mechanism of the brain wherein the human reacts towards the achievement of the benefit of his or her action. In this perspective, the role of the subcortical structure composed of the limbic system, thalamus, hypothalamus, basal ganglia, and midbrain becomes significant as the development and regulation of motivation in the human behavior. These structures produce motivation through the manipulation of hormonal secretion such as dopamine and other pleasure sensors thus, creating the reward system and interest factor of the individual behavioral system.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Emotion on the other hand, is scientifically related to the limbic system, the basal ganglia, thalamus, hypothalamus, and likewise the subcortical system in the human brain as the brain region controlling the development and formulation of emotion in the human behavior. In the psychobiological perspective, emotion becomes the result of the altercation in the physiological behavior of the human body as the result of the hormonal secretion controlled by the human brain. In this concept, the involved region of the brain intercepts the stimulation from the sensory regions and controls the physiological system of the human body such as heartbeat, breathing rate, sweat secretion, and others creating the general emotional reaction of the human body.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In general, the physiological reaction of the human body creating the behavioral characteristic of the person becomes the product of the control of the human brain. The behavioral characteristic of the human person such as motivation and emotion are regulated and are controlled in the brain region.   Bibliography Westen, Drew (1998). Psychology: Mind, Brain & Culture. John Wiley & Sons Inc. 2nd Edition. ISBN-10: 0471240494.

A Foolish Mistake

A Doll’s House written by Henrik Ibsen, proposal was for the person who read the play to decide why is Nora lying concerning Krogstad. Nora has a childlike way enjoying shopping this Christmas especially since her husband will have a full-time permanent job at the bank she does have a care in the world about spending . Her husband Torvald want to know what Nora want for Christmas to his surprise money which bring the plot of the play regarding the money. The fact being that this play is extreme anxiety to money owing. From the start to the end Nora, and Krogstad plan slowly unwinds about Torvald. A familiar phrase â€Å"You are who you answer to† fits Nora in this play. At the start of the play, Torvald calls Nora many names likes â€Å"skylark†, and â€Å"little featherhead. † The funny thing is Nora acknowledge them, and continues devotion, and love for her husband. Nora is the doll in the play basically trying to please everyone except herself. Because Torvald views his public persona as more important than his private, he is unable to understand or appreciate the suffering of his wife(Metzger. Action from Nora shows her innocence. A bona fide wife deserves respect whether she is a liar or not. Respect and faith fluctuate in many ways. Like, a familiar phrase my mother always says, â€Å"you don’t have to like a person, but you have to respect them†. A person can have trust in the person or not respect is always in order. Nora former classmate Mrs. Linde is lo oking for a job come to chat about her hard time and Nora begin to share her blessing. Nora slip and told her dark secret to Mrs. Linde. The trip to Italy to save Torvald’s life was well said, â€Å"better dead than alive†! Had Nora not urgently forge her father name for a large amount of money from Krogstad. Nora would not have to lie, and gradually rob Torvald to pay off his life through her. A course a wife, never want to lose her husband. Many times she would do all she can. Nevertheless, a wise wife would embark upon the situation so that it will not attack her family life for the bad only better with a plan in the beginning. In Nora case, she made an awful choice that is now ruining her marriage, and children. As for Krogstad, he could lose his career, possibly his only job. Nora could just vision everything was coming to a end like the walls were closing up on her the pressure was getting the best of her. As time, get closer to Torvald taking over the bank. Time begins to run out for Nora because of the disarray of lying to Torvald, and the rate Krogstad could lose his job as well as his reputation. It was nice of Krogstad to loan Nora the money, but unethical on his end also. Now result in the end Krogstad was label for fraud. Business mind make sure that the start was of business was in good standard so that they want be set-up. For Nora sharp thinking work out fine in the beginning but in the end, it caught up with her. In this case, Krogstad black mailed her to get what is essential to him through her husband. In conclusion, a foolish mistake can sometime hurt others as well as yourself. If we can only turn back the hand of time thing would be so much different. Nora is a phony and accepts it until she understands herself through Krogstad and vice versa. Torvald still find out the truth, and Nora leaves. Krogstad is himself again. Torvald in existence confuse his mind, while Nora is free.

Reflection Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 7

Reflection Paper - Essay Example All of these skills are involved in planning and implementing change. The first place that organizations must start in their planning process is the business plan. For some small businesses, this plan can be the most difficult to write, but once written, it will steer the organization for many years. As the business plan is written, a marketing plan and a strategic plan are other parts of the planning process. Each of these plans will need to be updated as the organization changes and grows. The very nature of planning suggests that change must happen Many organizations have had challenges with planning for many reasons. Some organizations are so involved with the day to day operations that they feel they have no time to plan. Others do not plan because they know it means change and they are afraid of what change may bring to their organizations. Some organizations know they should plan, but they do not understand what is involved in the planning process. These businesses may fail if they do not plan on a regular basis. An important aspect of planning is to define it so that each individual in an organization understands what they are doing. According to the Business Dictionary (2009), planning is: [The] process of identifying an organizations immediate and long-term objectives and formulating and monitoring specific strategies to achieve them. It also entails staffing and resource allocation †¦ Planning models are plentiful in the filed of leadership and organizational development. For the purpose of this reflection, two strategic planning models have been chosen for review. Every organization chooses a planning model that fits their needs. Most of these models have several components. As an example, Van der Werffs (1998) model has three phases: The SWOT model is a well known planning model that is used by many organizations. In this model, the organization

Tata Motors Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Tata Motors - Essay Example This report seeks to analyze the new product development process of Tata Motors. The challenges faced by the management team during the innovation stages are explored thus the systems and processes applied by Tata Motors in ensuring that they respond appropriately to the pressure for change, and capturing an unmovable position in the increasingly competitive marketplace. The steps taken to ensure that a sustainable competitive advantage is maintained are assessed. In conclusion, a lot can be learnt from Tata Motor and can be summarized as follows. 1. The Carlsberg - Tetley techniques have been applied to ensure that a culture of consistent quality, innovation and continuous improvement and thus, emerge as the customer’ premiere choice. 2. An effective culture is characterized by a breakthrough process, creative flips, positivity, unity of purpose and vision and staff training. 3. It is important to participate in Corporate Social Responsibility and environmental conservation efforts. 4. There is a need for market research and ensure improvement to remain relevant to the consumer. 5. Change must be seen as a continuous and gradual process that is usually met with daunting challenges. 6. A strategic venture into acquisitions and joint ventures are instrumental in entering in entering and expanding into different market segments. 7. Resources must be allocated towards continued research, technological, strategic acquisitions, and marketing. 8. The company’s structure should have fewer divisions but a larger number of business units.

Autumn Moon Festival in San Francisco Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Autumn Moon Festival in San Francisco - Essay Example ering that the Autumn Moon Festival is close to the end-period of summer harvest, a lot of people in San Francisco take this opportunity to give thanks for a fruitful return. A large photo of â€Å"Chang’e floating to the Moon† (Chinatown Merchants Association, 2005) is commonly used to symbolize the legendary and ancient stories about the Autumn Moon Festival. The Mid-Autumn Festival is one of the most important holidays in the Chinese calendar since this occasion is not only being celebrated in San Francisco but also in other countries like Australia, China, Hong Kong, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, Taiwan among others where the Chinese population is huge. Xia and Shang Dynasty in China greatly influence the Autumn Moon Festival. Chinese people during the Zhou Dynasty celebrated the Mid-Autumn Festival for the purpose of worshiping the moon. During the olden days, it is possible for the sun or the moon to be worshiped by people as deities since these were some of the readily visible objects. (ChinaTown Merchants Association, 2005) Over the years, this practice has been passed on to Tang Dynasty. The Southern Song Dynasty started the practice of producing round moon cakes as a symbol of the moon which they give to their relatives as a gift and good wishes to their family members. The 17th Annual Autumn Moon Festival in San Francisco was celebrated with lion and dragon dances, beauty queens, Chinese arts and crafts, moon cakes, and other commercially sold food and drinks. (Pang, 2007) Approximately more than 100 communities or roughly 100,000 individuals joined the celebration which took place in September 22 and 23 wherein participants has enjoyed the different forms of entertainment presented on stage. Most of the entertainment programs were very much inspired by the traditional Chinese folk dances, martial arts, and the modern jazz routines. Some popular Chinese songs were also sung by some of the Festival performers. Since the Autumn Moon Festival in

External Analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

External Analysis - Essay Example The external analysis allows the company to keep up to date with the changes in the industry. It helps the organization in keeping track of the stakeholders in the market including the customers and competitors. The outcome of the external analysis comes through the development and implementation of strategies. There are factors that affect the way that organizations perform these factors can be internal environmental factors and external environmental factors. The internal environment encompasses the strenghths and weaknesses of the company and covers the internal factors that can be the resources including the profitability, sales or can be the capabilities. Factors such as the corporate culture and employees also constitute to the internal environment. One the contrary, external factors are outside of the company. Advancements in technology and changes in government regulations and social policies can be characterized as opportunities or threats for the company. The opportunities for the firm include the changes in the trends, changes in the competition, analysis of new markets as well as segments, advancements in information technology and the alterations in government regulations. ... rs to entry and hence, emergence of competitors, low growth of the market, unfavorable changes in the regulation and advancements in technology that are difficult to keep up with. StilSim: Threats and the Opportunities: An external analysis of Stilsim would give a detailed view of the opportunities and threats that the company deals with. Opportunities: The analysis revealed that among the opportunities is the prospects of expansion and the advancements in technology. One of the vital aspects for an organization is its prospects for expansion. An attractive opportunity for Stilsim is the choice of spreading to other areas and expanding operations beyond the current region of work. Despite the condition of the markets, businesses of the employment firms and recruitment agencies are always in demand. This opportunity for Stilsim can enable it to capitalize over its experience and contacts in the industry and expand the operations to various cities. another opportunity that was recogniz ed was the technological opportunities. With the passage of time and the advancements in information technology, there has been an evolution in the way businesses conduct themselves. Technologies that were once seen as far sighted notion are now household commodities. This advancement in technology has provided more opportunities for businesses. Stilsim can reach its potential customers through its web presence. It could mould its website according to the needs of the customer and current trends. The internet could be exploited to communicate the core values of business and use it for E-marketing. Threats: The threats in the external environment include the company's its incompetence regarding technology and the use of state of the art systems. Stilsim is still dependent upon the use of

Management of change - Organisational Environment Essay

Management of change - Organisational Environment - Essay Example From that humble, but enterprising start ("With two routs and two planes, they carried 82 passengers in one year"), Michael O'Leary, its CEO, under whom it underwent an organisational change that took it to unbelievably dizzy heights with the following fantastic growth rate: "Not only are there different types of change, which manifest themselves in different organisations, change also appears differently at different levels of an organisation and in its various functions," Senior (2002, p. 57). Michael O'Leary adopted 'low fares, no frills' policy and in 10 years, Ryanair had carried 2.25 million passengers and was voted Best Managed National Airline by International Aviation Week Magazine. It launched its own website and sold tickets directly to passengers monopolising 95% of the total bookings. It can be conceptualised as Mintzberg's Entrepreneurial Organisational form. "..tends to be low in formalisation and standardisation, but high in centralisation with authority localised in a single person," Senior (p. 103). In 2004, it recorded its first loss of 3.3 million and O'Leary warned of a 'bloodbath' out of which only 2 or 3 airlines would emerge winners, assuming Ryanair would be the first one. Now with more countries in EU, Ryanair has cut its losses and looking upwards again, with EasyJet, Air Berlin, Germanwings, Translavia as its main competitors. It remains one of the most controversial companies, praised and criticised in equal measure for populism, challenging the 'establishment' within the airline industry, deceptive advertisements, trade union policies, and stubborn ways reflecting O'Leary personality. It is also accused of poor treatment to passengers, refusing to provide accommodation or meal vouchers when flights are cancelled, for poorly treating disabled passengers, ill treating its employees, flying into smaller airports away from the cities, for vicious attacks on opponents (Mary O'Rourke - Conflict of Organisations and Ryanair has to deal with many Governmental authorities as in Interdependence concept), offensive in-house advertising, and for its old second-hand airliners. It receives subsidies from European airports and EC believes that this is against EU competition laws. Whatever the criticisms are, Ryanair has proved to be a management and business marvel with its never-say-die grit. Its concept can be connected with Power Pricing: "Power pricing attempts the impossible, namely to increase profit and value simultaneously," www.wirtschaft.uni- kassel.de/marketing/downloads/Interview.pdf The European Management Journal, Vol.19, No.5, pp. 472-480, October 2001. Its strategic interaction flourishes on the perpetually alert Strategic Management, focussing on Price competition amongst low cost carriers. Ryanair is definitely not a prisoner of circumstances and has shown immense capability to rise above every hostile situation. It has to look for sometimes rude, to keep its expenses low and that could draw flak. Its main wealth is the remarkable leadership provided by O'Leary, based on Leadership qualities of Management, especially that of Directive leadership. "The

Debate on CSR related issues Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Debate on CSR related issues - Coursework Example (Steven, 2003). The responsibilities of businesses are limited to making profits for the initiators or owners of the business. Profit earned from the business is a reward to the risk takers and is used either as income to the owner or it is used to improve their standard of living. The thoughts of businesses having a social responsibility are uncalled for since it is only people who have duties to perform or attend to. This can be loosely translated to mean that it is only people who have social responsibilities to look after. Businesses are artificial persons and in this sense, may have artificial responsibilities that cannot be in any way linked to or associated with the owners of the business (The New York Times, 1970). Persons are responsible at individual level and not the business as a whole, therefore if one was to categorize responsibility in its measure; then it would have to be at individual level and not as cooperate or as a business entity. Business entities are established with goals and objectives and among the most common objective is to increase market share which directly translates to increased profits except for entities or organizations started with the aim of providing community services such as community hospitals and schools (Sullivan & Steven, 2007). The primary responsibility of any cooperate institution to maximize the potential for the value of their product, and this translates into increased customer preference hence increased profits. The business entity will, therefore, have a primary responsibility of maximizing sales through different approaches such as advertising or packaging and these approaches will be aimed at increasing the profit margin. Social responsibilities on the other hand are initiatives related to employment creation, reducing or eliminating discrimination based on race, cultures, religion, ethnicity, among other factors and controlling environmental pollution (The New York Times, 1970). Individual associates

Viral Marketing and Social Networking Thesis Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Viral Marketing and Social Networking - Thesis Example , the observation of covering ones nose or mouth when sneezing becomes critical for the major prevention of mucus fluid getting to others because they can be infected by the influenza virus. In our discussion here, no infection is being passed on through marketing, but we are trying to gather more knowledge through expounding on the term to get a better understanding of its meaning. Marketing on the other hand, is passing of information about products available for sale to customers at a time with the aim of creating value. Thus, viral marketing can be described as the passing of information in a large quantity through the media, about the available product and its value to the mass. This can be done through communicating in online social network. Social networking is the coming together of likeminded individuals in an online portal to share their thoughts to advance to better solutions of life. On increasing brand awareness, aids product or brand or service outreach to the targeted customer segment, and achieve related aims to the product or service promotion and or selling the technique encourages all this. So targeting the social networks by word of mouth, the users can convey the information through their sites to, many within a period of time and create a massive awareness for many if it is a targeted part of the customers to the product. The advertisement on the internet is the important aspect in the moment now because of globalization. Today all products are marketed worldwide with technology making a global village what has been a large globe. Take for instance the social media which has become an important part of advertising, it has two components (Bryce 34).The first can be traced through social channels like tweeter or a blog, where your voice gains credibility, in earning a following when you provide regular and useful information through them. The second one is that a word of mouth over the internet about your product through the social media

Applied Electronics Assignment. Coursework Lab Report

Applied Electronics Assignment. Coursework - Lab Report Example This lab report was based on the application of Arduino that is the hardware of the computer from the open source. In the design of a combinational circuit, a connection to the seven segments was done, and this has seven sections that were each controlled in ON or OFF to display a figure that was desired. The codes provided in the screen shots were used in the design to come out with the needed device. The desired figures were in the range of 0 – 9 that were displayed in the combinational circuit and these were in the seven segments connection. The letters were from A – F and these were hexadecimal letters used in the circuit designed. After entering all the necessary codes, the seven segments was able to display. This device (seven segments) are organized in such a way that it could make the shape like square â€Å"8† that is a little bit inclined towards the right. The device used was based on the LED and in this task; a reasonable stress was imposed on the display of the LED seven segments. On this LED, seven segments including a dot element were entirely based on the LEDs (Balagurusamy 2008). 3. The code used was 0001and the output displayed was 1 for 0010 of the output display, and the output result shall be 2, etc. The circuit was driven using 7446 IC, and this was based on the PCB to the seven-element display power drive of IC and was of a low active output. Every output to the PCB had the fully completed rippled bank and had no outside transistor driver. In the PCB, there were the built test functions that could be used for the test. Holding the ripple blanking high the test input pin was low all the LED element result was

Food Security Essay Example for Free

Food Security Essay As the effort to alleviate poverty and increase food security takes on new dimensions on the backdrop of increasing challenges, asset-based community development has become a key strategy. There has been a shift of focus to individual, communal and institutional asset and the capacity or potential they have in building the capacity of achieving locally defined development (Social Design, 2010). The asset-based community development strategy is based on the principle that including as many people as is possible in a development project increases the probability of the project remaining sustainable even after the experts implementing it leave it under the management of the community. The asset-based community development strategy begins by first acknowledging that the existent poverty and insufficiency in a community cannot be solved by the human, physical and intellectual assets at the disposal of the community (Social Design, 2010). It involves the mobilization of members of the community so that these assets, coupled with external investment, can be effectively utilized to improve the community’s capacity of meeting the developmental challenges that face it. In addition, there needs to be creation of awareness about alternative means of acquiring additional assets and resources. Secondly, asset-based community development should be viewed as complementary to developmental work already in progress within the community; and must be based on the traditions rooted within the community with regard to organization, community development and developmental planning (Social Design, 2010). It should be noted that not a single entity (government, the business community, civil society and the community itself) can bring meaningful development on its own, so the essence of asset-based community is to forge a working partnership between all the stakeholders to bring about improvement in sufficiency, democracy and respect to human rights (Social Design, 2010). The process must therefore be based on transparency and accountability, justice and participation. Having established this operational framework, attention is shifted on ways of mobilizing the community and the assets it has towards a clearly defined vision. The first step is mapping all the assets within the community and its local institutions (Social Design, 2010). Full mobilization in this context is only achieved after the community can address its agenda and challenges with an awareness of the resources that it has to counter the developmental challenges it faces. Second, elaborate plans should be put in place to build strong relationships within the community so that these resources can be aggregated and given a common focus towards progress. Strength and self-reliance are attributes bolstered when all members of the community are linked and actively involved in finding solutions to the challenges that face them (Social Design, 2010). The community realizes that it has a great potential than it had realized and there is a rejuvenation of hope, motivation and renewal. After relationships have been established, the assets owned within the community are mobilized towards economic development and for the purpose of sharing information. This includes the assets relegated due to lack of information on how to harness them or lack of the applicable technology. The community is then convened as a unit to participate in the development of a vision and the plan to achieve it. As said earlier, the assets and resources within poor communities are not sufficient. Asset-based development strategies need therefore to leverage outside resources to support them; and after all these steps have been taken, the community is on its way to self-sufficiency (Social Design, 2010). Sustainable livelihoods frameworks (SLF) Sustainable Livelihoods frameworks provide a basis for poverty analysis so that policies, programs and projects designed to reduce poverty can be specifically tailored to meet developmental challenges facing a community (Ludy Slater, 2008). Through SLFs, a coherent approach to the analysis of economic challenges can be performed, leading to the identification of suitable intervention and the timetable for these interventions. SLF implementation are founded on analyzing livelihoods, risks and vulnerabilities of individuals, households and the community so that key drivers of poverty and their remedies can be established (Ludy Slater, 2008). Sustainable livelihoods frameworks are centered on people and their capacity to mobilize the natural, human, social and financial assets at their disposal in response to opportunities and risks so that the quality of life can be improved. An emphasis is laid on strengths rather than weaknesses, and the strategy is to make targeted people have the awareness that they have the assets and the potential to utilize them in pursuit of livelihood goals (Ludy Slater, 2008). SLF implementation is multidimensional and aims at first identifying the constrictions standing in the way of individuals and households and analyzing the same to yield the opportunities that may arise therein; developing specific but diverse strategies to empower the people to pursue paths towards securing their livelihoods. SLFs focus on each target’s individual strategy for socio-economic development and therefore favor full participation and multidisciplinary approach at different levels (Ludy Slater, 2008). They thus are flexible to organizations planning specific interventions to poverty and allow focus to be on the elements within a society most likely to face developmental challenges. Entrepreneurial ideology in rural project Entrepreneurship has been identified as a very strategic intervention for accelerating development in rural areas. It creates employment, prevents rural unrest and leads to the creation of wealth at the local level reducing dependency especially for women and other marginalized people (FAO, 1997). There is acceptance that entrepreneurship in rural areas by itself cannot achieve development; so the emphasis of this ideology is the creation of an environment that makes entrepreneurship in rural areas a viable venture. The premise of the rural entrepreneurship ideology is that diversification from subsistence agriculture holds the key to economic development (FAO, 1997). Attention is therefore paid to alternatives like the promotion of tourism and other trades like carpentry, training, retailing and sports. The genesis of rural entrepreneurship is the creation of a supporting environment through policies that establish macro-economic stability, property rights and an international outlook (FAO, 1997). The necessary inputs to the entrepreneurship process like capital, infrastructure and management training can therefore be dispatched to the rural areas as a base for establishing a vibrant economy, consequently increasing sufficiency and reducing dependency. ? References Food and Agricultural Organization, FAO. (1997). â€Å"Rural development through entrepreneurship† Retrieved on 20/5/2010 from http://www. fao. org/docrep/W6882E/w6882e02. htm#P359_61606 Ludy, E. Slater, R. (2008). Using the Sustainable Livelihoods Framework to understand and tackle poverty. Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation. Social Design. â€Å"Asset-Based Community Development† Retrieved on 19/05/2010 from http://www. socialdesign. org/assets/development. html

Analysis And Evaluation Of Change In Avon

Analysis And Evaluation Of Change In Avon The main aim of this report is to investigate an organisation that is undergoing major strategic change. Firstly the report will describe the change that has been adopted. It will then evaluate the effectiveness of the change strategy in terms of the organisations structure, culture and politics. Finally the report will recommend and evaluate an integrated change strategy based on the three aspects. 2.0 A background of the organisation The organisation that has been selected is Avon Cosmetics Limited. Avon is a global manufacturer and marketer of beauty and related products. The company markets to women in more than 100 countries through more than 5 million independent Avon sales representatives. Product categories include: Beauty, which consists of cosmetics, fragrances, skincare and toiletries; Beauty Plus, which consists of fashion jewellery, watches, etc and Beyond Beauty, which consists of home products, gift and decorative products, candles and toys. (Avon, 2008 and Keynote, 2007) Avons company profile has been explored further in appendix 1 2.1 The meanings and theories of strategic change According to Lynch (2000, p921), Strategic change is the pro-active management of change in organisations to achieve clearly identified strategic objectives. It may be undertaken using either prescriptive or emergent strategic approaches. On the other hand Mintzberg et al. (2003) give five definitions of strategy and they are: a plan, a ploy, a pattern, a position and a perspective. It somehow agrees with Hayes (2002, p58) who states that a change strategy is essentially a plan to make things happen. It needs to address all the things that have to be done to bring about the change. However De Wit and Meyer (2004, cited in Hughes, 2006) emphasise that not all change is strategic and that much is operational. Operational changes are necessary to maintain the business and organizational systems, whereas strategic changes are directed at renewing them. 2.2 Avons strategic change Avons vision statement is to: To be the company that best understands and satisfies the product service and self-fulfilment needs of women globally According to Mintel (2006), the make-up market is growing fast in terms of fashion trends and has attracted many new brands over the past ten years. The cosmetic industry is very lucrative, innovative and fast paced industry. Therefore Avon has to watch the economy and rely on their brands. Being a global manufacturer and marketer of beauty and related products, Avon has been through several changes since it was founded in 1886. For over 120 years, Avon has been devoted to empowering women by helping them to look good and feel beautiful. The major strategic change is to: à ¢- ª Commit on brand competitiveness by investing millions in research and development on product innovation and increase advertising; à ¢- ª Re-design the organizational structure to eliminate layers of management in order to take full advantage of the global scale and size; and à ¢- ª Build a better tomorrow for women across the world both through representative earnings and helping millions of women to become entrepreneurs and run their own business. (Avon, 2008) (MultiChannel Marketing, 2007) It is suggested by Johnson and Scholes (2002) that we need to understand the magnitude of the challenge faced in trying to effect strategic change. In order to diagnose the strategic change within Avon, it is useful to consider the type of change that is required. In order to identify the type of change that has been adopted within Avon, we will use the model from Balogun and Hailey (1999, cited in Johnson and Scholes, 2002, p536, exhibit 11.2). Looking at Avons strategic change, it is quite clear that the nature of change will be incremental as it will build on the skills, routines and beliefs of those in the organization and the scope of change will be realignment as it will occur within the organizational beliefs and assumptions. The type of strategic change here will be adaptation as it will be accommodated within the current paradigm. Johnson et al. (2005) go to say that we need to consider the wider context in which change is to occur by understanding the organizational structure, culture, politics and the specific forces that will block and facilitate the change process. However there are other contextual characteristics that also need to be considered before embarking on a programme of change. They are: preservation, diversity, capability, capacity, readiness and power. 2.3 Organisational structure The effectiveness of change efforts is largely determined on how an organization is structured. In a world that is perpetually changing, an organisations design must support the idea that the implementation and re-implementation of a strategy is a continuous process. However, a number of traditional organizational design features tend to discourage change. (Lawler and Worley, 2006) According to Carnall (1999), an ideal organization structure will provide the right balance of information, power and resources to support the various activities within the organization in achieving its objectives. Appendix 2 shows the organisational structure of Avon and describes how it influences the identity and corporate image of the organization. It is clearly evident that Avon has been building bonds with women around the world by offering them a dynamic earnings opportunity to achieve economic independence, accomplish their financial goals and transform their lives. As a top global brand and world leader in beauty and related products, Avon continues to revolutionize the beauty industry by launching innovative, first-to-market products using Avon-patented technology. It also allows Avon a more direct response from consumers and allows them to sell their products without the expensive and lengthy process of getting it into traditional channels. Direct selling/marketing presents many benefits to consumers including avoiding hassles of traffic congestion, parking, lack of time, shortage of retail help and waiting at checkouts. (Wilkinson et al. 2007) Consumers can browse through Avon broch ures in the comfort of their home. 2.4 Organisational culture Just as the structure of Avon should fit the particular strategy it wishes to follow, so should its culture. An organisations culture is its deeply rooted traditions, values and beliefs. (Stacey, 2003) Bradt (2008) states that a winning company culture is simple and emphasizes three areas: serving the customer, growing the business, and developing employees. Whereas a losing culture is confusing and complex, places customer needs behind those of the company, and emphasizes personal gain over team achievement. Sopow (2007) goes on to say that there are high levels of mistrusts, poor communication and strong resistance if an organisations culture is unhealthy. Appendix 3 illustrates Avons organizational culture by using the cultural web model from Johnson and Scholes (2002, p232, fig 5.8). It is suggested by Cameron and Green (2004) that organizations should only involve themselves in culture change if the current culture does not adequately support the achievement of strategic objectives. Avons organizational culture in appendix 3 clearly indicates that the strategic change will be accommodated within the current paradigm and will occur within Avons beliefs and assumptions. 2.5 Organisational Politics In order to investigate the strategic change, it might be useful to regard corporations as political organizations and see strategy and change as part of internal politics within Avon. (Diedenbach, 2007) Johnson et al. (2005) states that there are two views of politics, one being healthy and the other one being unhealthy. While politics ensures that change is questioned and assessed, it also gets out of hand by showing a lack of commitment to a common vision and objectives. Morgan (1986, cited in Cameron and Green, 2004, p89) comments that Many people hold the belief that business and politics should be kept apart. However he contradicts this belief and this has been explored further in appendix 4. The most fundamental question from appendix 4 is whom should Avon be there for to serve? (Johnson et al. 2005) According to Joyce (1999), a stakeholder analysis requires you to identify the stakeholders, how they influence the organization, what the organization needs from each stakeholder and the stakeholders needs and expectations. Through the concept of organisational stakeholders, this question has been addressed in appendix 5. The analysis confirms the statement made by Andrea Jung, Avons Chairman and CEO Avons impeccable reputation is built upon a proud heritage of doing well by doing right. For more than a century, we have been setting the very highest example of integrity and ethics in all of our relationships with our shareholders, associates and Representatives; our suppliers and competitors; governments and the public. Our values and principles are the bedrock not only of Avons past but of its future. Avon was the first company to advertise, not tested on animals back in 1989 3.0 Evaluation of the proposed strategy The report has so far evaluated the effectiveness of the change strategy in terms of Avons organizational structure, culture and politics. It was found that the major strategic change does relate to the objectives of the organization and matches the organisationss capability, including its structure, culture and politics. However, being a global manufacturer and marketer of beauty and related products and a direct selling organisation, Avon is faced with several challenges. According to Wilkinson et al. (2007), direct selling activities vary fairly significantly from country to country. From appendix 1 and 2, we have established that Avons businesses are based on geographical operations in six regions and serving consumers in well over 100 countries. There are many factors to be considered and this involves understanding the market segment, competition, consumer behaviour, government rules and regulations, technological and social background. All of this is actually the external environment, which will either propel or halt the growth of business and so significant consideration needs to be given to them. Some of the competitive pressures that have been identified by Hill (2002) are cost reductions and local responsiveness. In terms of local responsiveness, pressures arise from a number of sources including: differences in consumer tastes and preferences, differences in infrastructure and traditional practices, differences in distribution channels and host government demands. Goll et al. (2007) go on to say that organizations must anticipate and respond to environmental changes to ensure competitiveness and, ultimately, survival. The basic assumptions underlying much of the strategic management is that successful firms change their strategies to attain a better fit with the environment. 3.1 The key environmental influences PEST analysis is a useful strategic tool for formulating business strategies, marketing planning, business and product development. It ensures that the organizations performance is aligned positively with the external forces of change that could impact business environment. (Report Buyer, 2008) According to Strickland and Thompson (1996), firms cannot directly control these external factors. It is stated by Johnson and Scholes (2002) that environmental forces which will be especially important for one organization may not be important for another. For example a retailer may only be concerned with local customer tastes and behaviour, whereas a global company such as Avon will be primarily concerned with government relations and understanding future policies of individual country governments with different political systems. Other factors will be the ability to compete with multinational rivals The PEST framework categorises environmental influences into four main types: political, economic, social, technological. The PEST analysis for Avon is discussed further in appendix 6. From the discussion, it is now possible to identify a number forces for change and forces against change. Carnall (1999) suggests that when major changes are in preparation, or are being implemented, it makes sense to prepare for, and manage change in the more professional ways. Lewin (1951, cited in Hayes, 2002) developed one of the ways called Force Field Analysis. According to Johnson et al. (2005), a force field analysis provides a view of change problems that need to be tackled, by identifying forces for and against change. Carnall (1999) suggests that Force Field analysis proceeds in four stages. Avons major strategy change has been used to conduct a Force field analysis in four stages. See appendix 7 for stages 1 and 2. The key points will now be used to proceed to stages 3 and 4. 3.2 Managing strategy change Lewin (1951) argued that change can only be effectively implemented when the forces driving change exceed the forces restraining change. Stage 3 underlines the forces that are the most important, builds on the change drivers and list actions to reduce the strengths of the restraining forces. In order to decide how Avons strategic change can be implemented, the strengths of the forces will be analysed by reducing the strengths of the forces opposing the change and increasing the forces pushing the change. A SWOT analysis will also be helpful as Avon will be able to use the top rated opportunities, exploit the top-rated strengths, counter the top-rated threats and rectify the top-rated weaknesses. Wickham (2000) states that, a SWOT analysis is an audit of the impact of environmental trends on the business and its external capabilities in terms of responding to them. Nutt and Backoff (1992, cited in Joyce, 1999) recommends combining SWOT analysis with a strategic issue agenda to identif y possible strategic actions. A SWOT analysis for Avon has been explored further in appendix 8. It is stated by Mullins (2002) that an organization can only perform effectively through interactions with the broader external environment. The force field analysis from appendix 7 resulted in a driving change force of 17 and a restraining change force of 21. These figures indicate that despite there being many incentives for a major strategy change within Avon, there are slightly more factors restraining the strategy change. Those individual forces that scored highest (with a score of 5) will now be discussed in greater detail below in order to better assess their impacts. The SWOT analysis in appendix 8 will help to increase the forces pushing the change and reduce the strengths the forces opposing the change. 3.3 Key driving forces for change The level of government intervention worldwide Having a presence in well over 100 countries, Avon is subject to foreign laws, rules, regulations or policies such as restrictions on trade, import and export license requirements, tariffs and taxes.(Avon, 2008) For example in China, the governments decision to ban door-to-door selling, as part of an effort to crack down on pyramid schemes, presented a threat. (Euromonitor, 2006) However in March 2006, the Chinese government granted a direct selling-selling licence. Since then Avon has recruited 300,000 door-to-door representatives in China, thus improving the economy of the country in terms of unemployment. Avon must continue to expand in other developing countries to prove how influential the Avon direct sales method can be and how it can transform the lives of women and achieve economic independence. Lucrative, innovative and fast paced industry In the cosmetic industry, consumers demands and needs change overtime. In order to satisfy the consumers, cosmetics firms are forced to innovate a new product, replace a product, or upgrade its products to meet the demands of consumers at all levels. (Akers and Porter, 1995 cited in Kumar et al. 2006) Through their research and development team in New York, Avon are developing new products and focusing on new technology and product innovation to deliver first-to-market products. (Avon, 2008) Although Avons chief marketing tool is its brochure, it should now expand its global advertising presence and communicate a more unified brand image throughout its international markets 3.4 Key restraining forces for change Cultural differences worldwide Although women all over the world have similar aspirations when it comes to beauty products and share the same desire to look their best, the challenge is to bring out differently formulated products to suit different skins colours and textures. Another factor, climate, should be considered when comparing regional preferences for cosmetics products. For example talc is used in hot countries to relieve perspiration, while in colder regions such as Russia and Eastern Europe it barely gets a look in. (Matthews, 2006). Product choices by country are also determined by consumers ¹ ability to pay. Avon should still continue to exploit the tremendous growth opportunities in other developing countries. Matthews (2006) states that big multinational companies are using consumer educational campaigns as a key means of promoting growth in countries characterized by low disposable income. For Avon with operations in over 100 countries a question of considerable importance is how does a societys culture affect workplace values? The most famous study of how culture relates to values in the workplace was undertaken by Geert Hofstede. He used four dimensions and one of them was masculinity versus femininity. (Hill, 2002). This dimension looks at the relationship between gender and work roles. In the case of Avon, feminine cultures sex roles are sharply differentiated and traditional feminine values, such as achievement and the exercise of power determined cultural ideals. Avon must consider the cultures of countries that are male dominant. Counterfeiting activity are Eastern Europe and China A counterfeit item is as good as cash. Counterfeiters are not just a few guys in a shed mixing cream and pouring them into a tin. They are linked to organised crime, money laundering and in some cases, even terror groups. And they always find the weakest route to the market. (www.cosmeticsdesign-europe.com) According to keynote (2007), the main hubs of counterfeiting activity are Eastern Europe and China. As Avon operates in these two regions, these restraining forces can be reduced by launching anti-counterfeit drives in both regions. It has also been suggested by Eyre (2007) that heat-shrink labels with integrated holograms could help the cosmetics industry in the fight against counterfeiting and forgery. 4 Conclusions This report offers an attempt to understand the major strategic change undergone by Avon Cosmetics Limited. A number of conclusions are evident. Firstly the report evaluated the effectiveness of the change in relation to Avons structure, culture and politics. It was found that the major strategic change does relate to the objectives of the organization and matches the organisationss capability, including its structure, culture and politics. However, being a global manufacturer and marketer of beauty and related products and a direct selling organisation, Avon was faced with several challenges in the external environment. The factors were: fierce competitions from multinational companies, consumer behaviour worldwide, government rules and regulations, technological and social background. Finally, in order to manage the strategic change effectively, the report attempted to increase the two main forces pushing the change and reduce the strengths of the two main forces opposing the change. Bibliography Ansoff I., and M c Donnell, E. (1990) Implanting Strategic Management. 2nd Edition. Harlow: Pearson Education Limited Brooker, K. (2001) It took a lady to save Avon. Fortune. New York: 144 (7) 202-208 Bradt, G. (2008) 5 Simple steps to build a winning corporate culture. Supervision. Burlington: 69 (3) 13-15 Cameron, E., and Green, M. (2004) Making Sense of Change Management. UK: Kogan Page Limited Carnall, C A. (1999) Managing Change in Organisations. 3rd Edition. Harlow: FT Prentice Hall Deresky, H. (2000) International Management: Managing Across Borders and Cultures. 3rd Edition. UK: Prentice Hall International Diedenbach, T. (2007) The managerialistic ideology of organisational change management. Journal of Organizational Change Management. Bradford: 20 (1) 126-144 Euromonitor (2006) China green light for direct sales heats up cosmetics and toiletries race. (Online) Available from http://www.euromonitor.com/Chinas_green_light_for_direct_sales_heats_up_cosmetics_and_toiletries_race. Accessed on 08/03/08 Eyre, C (2007) Anti-counterfeit technology for cosmetics. (Online). Available from http://www.cosmeticsdesign-europe.com/news/ng.asp?id=79126. Accessed on 08/03/08 Goll, I., Johnson, N B., and Rasheed, A A. (2007) Knowledge capability, strategic change, and firm performance; The moderating role of the environment. Management Decision. London: 45 (2) 161 Hayes, J. (2002) The Theory and Practice of Change Management. Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan Hill, C W L., (2002) Global Business Today. 2nd Edition. New York: McGraw Hill Hughes, M. (2006) Change Management. A critical perspective. London: Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development. Johnson, G., and Scholes, K. (2002) Exploring Corporate Strategy. 6th Edition. Harlow (UK): Prentice Hall Johnson, G., Scholes, K., and Whittington, R. (2005) Exploring Corporate Strategy. 7th Edition. Harlow (UK): Prentice Hall Joyce, P. (1999) Strategic Management for the Public Services, Buckingham Open University Press Keynote, (2007) Cosmetics and Fragrances. Market Report Plus. (Online). Available from http://www.keynote.co.uk. Accessed 18/02/08 Kumar, S., Massie, C., Dumonceaux, MD. (2006) Comparative innovative business strategies of major players in cosmetic industry. Industrial Management and Data Systems. 106 (3) 285-322 Lawler, E E., and Worley, C G. (2006) Designing organisations that are built to change. MIT Sloan Management Revie. Cambridge: 48 (1)19 Lynch, R. (2000) Corporate Strategy (2nd edition), Harlow (UK), FT Prentice Hall Matthews, I (2006) Targeting Cultural and Ethnic Differences in Beauty. (Online). Available from http://www.in-cosmetics.com/page.cfm/T=m/Action=Press/PressID=344 Accessed on 08/03/08 Mead, R. (1994) International Management: Cross Cultural Dimensions. Oxford: Balckwell Publishers Mintel (2006) Make-up -UK Mintzberg, H., Lampel, J., Quinn, J B., and Ghoshal, S. (2003) The Strategy Process. 4th Edition. New Jersey: Pearson Education Limited Mullins, L J. (2002) Management and Organisational Behaviour. 6th Edition. Harlow: FT Prentice Hall MultiChannel Marketing (2007) Avon Cosmetics. (Online). Available from http://www.multichannel.co.uk. Accessed on 27/02/08 Pellet, J. (2000) Ding-dong Avon stalling? Chief Executive. New York: (156) 26-31 Report Buyer (2008) Indian Cosmetics Sector: PEST Analysis. (Online). Available from http://www.reportbuyer.com/consumer_goods_retail/cosmetics_grooming/indian_cosmetics_sector_pest_analysis.html. Accessed on 03/03/08 Rose, S. (2000) Remaking the Avon lady. Money. New York: 29 (2) 46-49 Schneider, S C., and Barsoux, J L. (1997) Managing Across Cultures. Harlow: Pearson Education Limited Sopow, E. (2007) The impact of culture and climate on change. Strategic HR Review. Chicago: 6 (2) 20 Stacey, R D. (2003) Strategic Management and Organisational Dynamics. 4th Edition. Harlow: FT Prentice Hall Strickland, A. J., and Thompson, A. A. (1996) Strategic Management: Concepts and Cases. 9th Edition. London: Irwin Trim, P., and Lee Y (2007) Placing organisational learning in the context of strategic management. Business Strategy Series: 8 (5) 335-342 Wickham, P D. (2000) Financial Times Corporate Strategy Casebook. Harlow (UK): FT Prentice Hall Wilkinson, T J., McAlister, A., and Widmier, S. (2007) Reaching the international consumer: An assessment of the international direct marketing environment. Direct Marketing. 1 (1) 17-37 www.avon.uk.com www.cosmeticsdesign-europe.com Appendix 1- Avons History Avon began life as the California Perfume Company in America in 1886, giving women an opportunity to earn by selling fragrance and cosmetics door to door. Mrs P.F.E Albee was the very first agent taken on by the companys founder David H McConnell, who started life as a door to door book salesman giving away small bottles of perfume which proved to be more popular than the books themselves. In 1939, the company name was changed to Avon and twenty years later, began trading in the UK. Avon Cosmetics Ltd is one of the top 3 beauty brands in the country with growing market share in the UK beauty market. Since then Avon has established itself as a global leader in the beauty industry, serving to customers in over 100 countries around the world. Avon is now largest direct selling cosmetics organisation in the world and their product lines include the well-known brands Anew, Skin So Soft, Avon Colour, Advance Techniques and Today. The product categories include: cosmetics, fragrance, skincare .toiletries, fashion jewellery, watches, home products, gifts, candles, toys, lingerie, health, fitness and wellbeing products. Being a direct selling organisation, Avons shop window is its brochure. The brochure offers a wide selection of beauty and related products at affordable prices. Customers have access to these brochures either at home, work, social or leisure activities. Avon is committed to excellence- every beauty product that carries the Avon name carries with it the highest standards of product safety and integrity. Avon products are enjoyed by millions of women around the globe in over 100 countries through over 5 million independent sales Representatives often known as the Avon lady. Avons vision statement is to: To be the company that best understands and satisfies the product service and self-fulfilment needs of women globally (Avon, 2008) (Keynote, 2007) Appendix 2 Avons organisational structure Avons business is conducted worldwide primarily in one channel, direct selling. They are based on geographical operations in six regions. See below: Avon has sales operations in 63 countries, including America and Avon products are distributed in 51 more countries through distributorships. Sales of products are made through a combination of direct selling and marketing by 5.3 million Avon representatives worldwide. Representatives generally purchase products at a discount from a published brochure price directly from Avon and sell them to their customers. In many countries, representatives can use the internet to manage their own business online, including order submission, order tracking, payment, and a two way communication with Avon. In the US, representatives can build their own Avon business through personalised web pages. The research and development facility is located in New York. A team of researchers and technicians apply the disciplines of science to the practical aspects of bringing products to market around the world. Relationships with dermatologists and other specialists enhance the ability to deliver new formulas and ingredients to market. Satellite research facilities are also located in Brazil, China, Japan, Mexico and Poland (Avon, 2008). Appendix 3 Avons cultural web using model from Johnson and Scholes (2002, p232, fig 5.8) Stories Building bonds with women worldwide since 1886 to achieve economic independence and transform their lives Symbols Ding-Dong Avon calling. Worlds leading direct selling company of beauty and related products Power Chairman and CEO Vice Chairman Executive Vice Presidents Senior Vice Presidents for each of the six regions Routines Avon rep delivering brochures to own neighbourhood, customer chooses products, orders collected by rep products delivered back to customers (worldwide) Paradigm To be the beauty company most women turn to worldwide and creating lifelong customer relationships Controls High standards of product safety and integrity, rigorous quality controls on every product batch and no animal testing Organisation A flatter structure, equal opportunity employer where talent dedication are rewarded a whole range of training opportunities is available (Brooker, 2001) (Pellet, 2000) (Rose, 2000) (Avon, 2008) Appendix 4 The key beliefs of organisations as political systems are: à ¢- ª You cannot stay out of organisational politics as you are already in it; à ¢- ª Building support for your approach is essential if you want to make anything happen; à ¢- ª You need to know who is powerful, and who they are close to; à ¢- ª There is an important political map which overrides the organisational structure; à ¢- ª Coalitions between individuals are more important than work teams; à ¢- ª The most important decisions in an organisation is the allocation of resources, that is , who gets what, and these are reached through bargaining and negotiating. The above key beliefs lead to the following assumptions about organisational change: à ¢- ª The change will not work unless it is supported by a powerful person; à ¢- ª The wider the support for this change the better; à ¢- ª It is important to understand the political map, and to understand who will be winners and losers as a result of this change; and à ¢- ª Positive strategies include creating new coalitions and renegotiating issues Morgan (1986, cited in Cameron and Green, 2004) Appendix 5- Avons stakeholder analysis Bohret (1993, cited in Joyce 1999) suggests that drawing up tables of values to explore the goals and expectations of different social groups. See below for the stakeholder analysis for Avon. Stakeholder Power Interest Attitude Needs/expectations Government Worldwide H H Mixed Avon to meet or exceed all environmental laws of the countries and communities they operate Executive team H H Positive To give full recognition to employees and representatives worldwide, on whose contributions Avon depends and to share with others the rewards of growth and success All other employees L H Positive To achieve economic independence and an opportunity to earn in support of their well-being and happiness Customers L L Positive Active interest in cosmetics and fragrances and keen to look after their ap

Wide Dynamic Range Compression Benefits Health And Social Care Essay

Wide Dynamic Range Compression Benefits Health And Social Care Essay Adults with a moderate sensorineural hearing loss have a need for soft sounds to be amplified to help with clarity of speech without going over a level which the person finds too loud. Moderate sensorineural hearing loss is caused by damage to outer hair cells, which can lead to a reduced dynamic range and ultimately, recruitment. The dynamic range is the range between the threshold of hearing and the uncomfortable loudness levels (ULL). Venema (1998) refers to this as the floor (threshold) being raised and the ceiling (ULL) remaining the same. When the ULLs are unchanged, as thresholds worsen, an irregular increase in loudness is perceived typically referred to as recruitment. In order to distinguish between different types of hearing aids and find the most suitable for this type of hearing loss we have to look to see if the hearing aids can encompass the persons dynamic range without going over their uncomfortable loudness levels. It has been suggested that output limiting compress ion (CL) and wide dynamic range compression (WDRC) hearing aids are more beneficial for this type of hearing loss compared to linear hearing aids with peak clipping. Ultimately, for a moderate sensorineural hearing loss it is believed that WDRC is the most beneficial type of amplification at this time. The outer hair cells in the organ of Corti have been referred to as the amplifiers of the cochlea (Brownell, et al., 1985). In the absence of outer hair cell function, a moderate sensorineural hearing loss of around 40-50 dB is present (Ryan and Dallos, 1975). The most prevalent type of hearing loss in adults is presbyacusis or age-related hearing loss (Valente, et. al. 2008). Presbyacusis begins as a bilateral, symmetrical, high frequency sensorineural hearing loss affecting the outer hair cells in the basal end of the cochlea. People with this type of hearing loss tend to complain about background noises such as speech babble in a noisy pub. This can account for, what is commonly referred to as the upward spread of masking, which is caused by lower frequencies masking higher frequencies (Valente et. al., 2008). This results in softer, higher frequency sounds from speech such as consonants being masked by lower frequency speech sounds such as vowels. Presbyacusis causes a subtle dec rease in hearing over time (Valente et. al., 2008) and as a result, patients do not usually attend clinics until their families notice that the television is too loud or the patient themselves realize that they cannot hear as well in noisy situations as they used to. Hearing aids can include different types of compression circuits, which can benefit different types of hearing loss. Lets first look at input and output compression circuits. They differ to each other depending on where the volume control is located in the circuit. Output compression circuits have the volume control before the compression takes place. This type of compression affects the compression kneepoint and the gain but not the maximum power output. It is also the type of circuit used with CL amplification strategy and is associated with high compression ratios and kneepoints. Input compression has the volume control located after the compression circuit; therefore the sound is compressed before the volume control affects the sound. This means that the kneepoint is unaffected while the gain and maximum power output are. This type of compression circuit is what tends to be used with wide dynamic range compression (WDRC) strategy and is associated with low compression ratios and kneepoints (Venema, 1998; Dillon, 2001). The first type of compression is output limiting compression amplification. The input is linear until it reaches a high kneepoint and then it compresses the sound with a high compression ratio (Venema, 1998; Valente, et. al., 2008). This type of compression is very similar to peak clipping (PC), which is found in linear hearing aids, however it is more pleasant for the listener than PC because there is less distortion. People with normal hearing or mild to moderate hearing loss will notice that the quality of speech is more distorted with limiting when compared to people with severe to profound hearing loss who will not notice this effect as much (Dillon, 2000). In a study of 12 adults with mild to moderate sensorineural hearing loss, sound quality and clarity were improved with output limiting compression when compared to peak clipping (Hawkins and Naidoo, 1993). It is generally accepted that linear hearing aids with peak clipping no longer have a place in audiology clinics and hear ing aid companies have stopped manufacturing them. Wide dynamic range compression (WDRC) is a compression strategy that aims to amplify soft sounds by a lot, medium sounds by a moderate amount and loud sounds by a small amount (Souza and Turner, 1998). WDRC tends to give more gain to soft sounds and has fairly short attack and release times (Marriage, et al., 2005). WDRC is a nonlinear compression strategy, which tries to mimic the non-linearity of the cochlea and attempts to account for loudness recruitment with sensorineural hearing loss (Moore, et al., 1992). The threshold kneepoint is usually low at around 50 dB in order to amplify quiet sounds, compressions ratios are usually lower than 4:1 and attack and release times are short so that consonant sounds are not masked by vowel sounds (Valente, et. al., 2008). WDRC is a relatively new compression strategy that is used commonly in modern digital technology hearing aids. There are mixed views as to whether WDRC is of more benefit than linear amplification. It has been noted in some literature that measurable benefits of WDRC include improved hearing for soft speech sounds (Souza and Turner, 1998), speech in quiet, speech in noise, more comfortable listening situations for loud speech (Moore, et. al., 1992; Davies-Venn, 2009) and improved acclimatisation (Yund et. al., 2006). In contrast it has also been reviewed that WDRC may improve audibility but not necessarily intelligibility when compared to linear amplification (Marriage, et. al., 2005; Souza and Turner, 1998). WDRC may be of more benefit for people with mild to moderate sensorineural hearing loss compared to people with severe to profound sensorineural hearing loss. This may be due to the suggestion that as hearing gets worse i.e. in severe to profound sensorineural hearing loss that temporal cues are relied on more heavily to understand speech. Since fast WDRC can change temporal cues it may be that this population of hearing aid wearers benefits more from compression limiting (Jenstad and Souza, 2005; Davies-Venn et. al. 2009). In 1992, Brian Moore, et. al. tested twenty subjects with moderate sensorineural hearing loss, measuring speech discrimination ability in quiet and speech reception thresholds (SRTs) in noise. The subjects were fitted with two types of hearing aids: Linear amplifiers and two-band WDRC compressors. They were tested with their new hearing aids and also in an unaided condition and with their own original hearing aids. With the compression hearing aids the subjects had good speech discrimination scores at all intensity levels in the quiet and the other three conditions showed decreasing speech intelligibility as the intensity level got quieter. The WDRC aids proved to help subjects achieve lower SRTs in noise compared to the other conditions. Patients with reduced dynamic ranges also benefited from the compression hearing aids more than the linear aids in that they found the loud sounds more comfortable. When surveyed the subjects also preferred the sound of the WDRC hearing aids (Moore, et al., 1992). Another benefit of WDRC over liner amplification is improved acclimatisation. Acclimatisation is the time it takes for the brain to get accustomed to sound from a particular type of amplification and to have increased speech recognition. Yund et. al. (2006) did an acclimatisation study with 39 subjects with mild to moderate sloping sensorineural hearing loss, who had never worn hearing aids. They showed that subjects who wore the WDRC hearing aids experienced acclimatisation, whereas the patients who wore linear hearing aids did not show any increased speech discrimination scores. They believed this was because the WDRC hearing aid was able to process the normal hearing dynamic range into the dynamic range of subjects with mild to moderate sensorineural hearing loss. After a period of wearing linear amplification, subjects were then fitted with WDRC hearing aids. These subjects still struggled with acclimatisation after a period with their WDRC hearing aids and needed extra help in t he form of auditory training to get rid of the effects of the linear amplification on the brain. Overall, it was concluded that hearing aids with more sophisticated technology may be the best aids for acclimatisation (Yund, et. al., 2006). One study compared the benefits of linear and nonlinear hearing aids with speech tests and Glasgow Hearing Aid Benefit Profile (GHABP) questionnaires. The majority of subjects preferred the WDRC nonlinear hearing aids compared to the linear hearing aids. They showed better scores on speech tests, had better speech recognition, and preferred the overall listening experience with the WDRC hearing aids. WDRC hearing aids can be programmed with fast or slow attack and release times or a combination as this can be adjusted for different channels. In this study the researchers found that there was more of a preference for slow attack and release times for the most comfort and satisfaction compared to fast WDRC (Gatehouse, et. al., 2006). In comparison, Shi and Doherty (2008) found better speech recognition scores for both slow and fast, attack and release times compared to linear hearing aids, however found no difference between scores for slow and fast times in WDRC. When attack and relea se times are shorter the soft speech sounds are amplified more than the louder ones. If the release time is long then the soft and loud speech sounds are amplified at the same level, which may result in the softer phonemes being masked by the louder ones (Valente, et. al., 2008). Where to set attack and release times may be different for each patient depending on their preference; however in these studies it has been shown that having attack and release times using WDRC improves speech recognition scores compared to linear hearing aids. WDRC multi-channel hearing aids have a distinct advantage over single channel hearing aids because they have the ability to use BILL and TILL (features of WDRC) at the same time (Sandlin, 2000). BILL is the bass increase at low levels and TILL is the treble increase at low levels (Dillon, 2001, pp 169). BILL will tend to go into compression a lot more with low frequency sounds and not as much with high frequency sounds. The strategy of BILL is to allow the hearing aid wearer to hear better in background noise. TILL will go into compression more often with high frequency sounds and not as much with low frequency sounds. The strategy of TILL is to increase audibility of high frequency sounds. Both BILL and TILL used in conjunction can create a good fitting strategy for a flat moderate high frequency sensorineural hearing loss (Venema, 1998). Dillon (2000) described two problems that can arise with WDRC hearing aids. The first problem is that while WDRC hearing aids amplify very soft speech well, they also amplify very soft background noises such as the clock ticking or the sound of clothes moving (Dillon, 2000). Fortunately with newer digital technology, hearing aids are able to separate speech from background noise more intuitively than with analogue technology. A way to deal with these very low level background noises is to use expansion. Expansion is the opposite of compression and aims to make the weakest sounds in the quietest environments unnoticeable as it is below the listeners aided threshold (Valente, et. al., 2008). The second disadvantage is the problem of feedback being introduced when the hearing aid wearer is in a quiet environment and the gain is increased (Dillon, 2000; Valente, et. al., 2008). In the past few years digital feedback suppression/cancellation has become more sophisticated and this does not seem to be a problem with WDRC in hearing aid wearers as long as a suitable earmould is fitted. Wide dynamic range compression has been shown to have advantages over linear amplification using compression limiting and peak clipping circuits. In some researchers opinions it has still not been unequivocally proven that WDRC is the best fitting strategy for all types of hearing loss. As levels gets worse than moderate sensorineural hearing loss, the loss of outer and inner hair cell function causes temporal cues to worsen. It is unclear whether fast WDRC may be causing distortion in speech signals due to this. What is clear is that for mild to moderate sensorineural hearing loss, most commonly observed with presbyacusis, WDRC seems to improve speech recognition in quiet, in noise, overall comfort and it is easier to acclimatise to wearing hearing aids. There is not a great amount of recent literature on the subject of the benefits of WDRC in the moderate sensorineural hearing loss category. It would be interesting to see new research conducted to determine whether there are more b enefits in multichannel WDRC with newer, more intuitive, digital technology hearing aids.

Cry, the Beloved Country, by Alan Paton :: Cry, The Beloved Country Essays

Cry the Beloved Country Seeing on Another Level From the day of birth and throughout adulthood, we as humans go through many changes. Kohlberg identifies these changes as stages of moral development that all humans go through. Each person's moral reasoning develops through Kohlberg's mapped out stages. In the novel Cry, the Beloved Country, Alan Paton discuses the life of several defined characters who undergo significant moral changes, all of which are for the better. A man named James Jarvis is a wealthy land owner and a crucial character in Paton's novel. The turning point in the novel comes about by the death of Jarvis's son. Although Jarvis lost his son, this tragedy opens his eyes to a deeper awareness, and Jarvis attains a higher level of moral reasoning. According to Kohlberg's stages he progresses from stage four of (law and order orientation) to the sixth stage of (ethical principles). Before the death of his son, James Jarvis had been a person who found contentment in tending his estate and maintaining a distinct separation from the world around him. He was basically a good man who never bothered to face the controversial issues of the time. At this point in the novel, Jarvis was at Kohlberg's stage four of law and order orientation. When someone is at the fourth stage of moral development they often have a lot of rules. They generally feel orientated towards authority and maintenance of the social order. They often feel we need to maintain the given social order for its own sake. James Jarvis, as introduced in "Book II,"would ponder many questions to himself, a lot about the social order and how it has been maintained. A good example from Paton's novel was a segment of Jarvis thinking of a controversial issue. "Some said there was too little land anyway . . . and that the natives could not support themselves on it, even with the most progressive methods of agri culture. . . Jarvis thought about all the possible outcomes to this debated statement while he finished climbing to the top of a mountain, where he sits on a stone to admire the view." From this we can see that Jarvis has separated himself from the world and only observes from an outside perspective. Even though he does think about many controversial issues, he never bothers to state his opinion and try to make a difference. Cry, the Beloved Country, by Alan Paton :: Cry, The Beloved Country Essays Cry the Beloved Country Seeing on Another Level From the day of birth and throughout adulthood, we as humans go through many changes. Kohlberg identifies these changes as stages of moral development that all humans go through. Each person's moral reasoning develops through Kohlberg's mapped out stages. In the novel Cry, the Beloved Country, Alan Paton discuses the life of several defined characters who undergo significant moral changes, all of which are for the better. A man named James Jarvis is a wealthy land owner and a crucial character in Paton's novel. The turning point in the novel comes about by the death of Jarvis's son. Although Jarvis lost his son, this tragedy opens his eyes to a deeper awareness, and Jarvis attains a higher level of moral reasoning. According to Kohlberg's stages he progresses from stage four of (law and order orientation) to the sixth stage of (ethical principles). Before the death of his son, James Jarvis had been a person who found contentment in tending his estate and maintaining a distinct separation from the world around him. He was basically a good man who never bothered to face the controversial issues of the time. At this point in the novel, Jarvis was at Kohlberg's stage four of law and order orientation. When someone is at the fourth stage of moral development they often have a lot of rules. They generally feel orientated towards authority and maintenance of the social order. They often feel we need to maintain the given social order for its own sake. James Jarvis, as introduced in "Book II,"would ponder many questions to himself, a lot about the social order and how it has been maintained. A good example from Paton's novel was a segment of Jarvis thinking of a controversial issue. "Some said there was too little land anyway . . . and that the natives could not support themselves on it, even with the most progressive methods of agri culture. . . Jarvis thought about all the possible outcomes to this debated statement while he finished climbing to the top of a mountain, where he sits on a stone to admire the view." From this we can see that Jarvis has separated himself from the world and only observes from an outside perspective. Even though he does think about many controversial issues, he never bothers to state his opinion and try to make a difference.

Elements of Symbolism in The Scarlet Letter :: Scarlet Letter essays

Elements of Symbolism in The Scarlet Letter    200 Words of Teacher’s Praise and Comments  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Nathaniel Hawthorne uses several literary devices to give his novel The Scarlet Letter depth. One of these devices is symbolism. Hawthorne utilizes symbolism to convey certain points or themes to the reader by using ordinary objects. Three of the elements he uses as symbols are the settings of the Puritan town and the forest and weather.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     The first of the two main settings is the Puritan town that includes the prison and the scaffold. The Puritan law is based on their religion. The town maintains a sense of strict moral values and disciplinary measures in accordance with the Puritan religion. Therefore, the town stands for lawfulness and purity. It serves as a contrast to Hester Prynne’s scarlet letter. The prison that the city was built around serves as a symbol as well. It represents guilt and the human tendency to sin, and it also symbolizes penance. Hester is forced to spend time in jail for committing the sin of adultery, and it is the starting point of Hester’s trek of shame to the scaffold in the market place. The scaffold itself is another symbol Hawthorne uses. Like the prison, it also symbolizes sin and guilt. â€Å"The very ideal of ignominy was embodied and made manifest in this contrivance of wood and iron† (60). It provides the setting of several important scenes in the novel. It is where Hester is forced to stand for three hours as punishment, where Dimmesdale, Pearl, and Hester stand in the night, and where Dimmesdale reveals himself and dies. It is also a symbol of truth because Dimmesdale’s great revelation occurred there.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The second setting is the forest just outside of the town. It proves to be a kind of dramatic foil to the idealistic Puritan society. The Puritans maintain a community that thrives on purity and lack of sin. The forest, on the other hand, is a symbol of lawlessness and desecration. It is shrouded in mystery and retains a dark and foreboding air. The Puritans abhor the forest because it stands as a perfect example of evil. However, the witches that live in the town view it very differently. They appreciate the anonymity the forest provides them. Thus they are free to pay homage to the Black Man in secret. Their presence reiterates the fact that the forest is a symbol of darkness. Elements of Symbolism in The Scarlet Letter :: Scarlet Letter essays Elements of Symbolism in The Scarlet Letter    200 Words of Teacher’s Praise and Comments  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Nathaniel Hawthorne uses several literary devices to give his novel The Scarlet Letter depth. One of these devices is symbolism. Hawthorne utilizes symbolism to convey certain points or themes to the reader by using ordinary objects. Three of the elements he uses as symbols are the settings of the Puritan town and the forest and weather.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     The first of the two main settings is the Puritan town that includes the prison and the scaffold. The Puritan law is based on their religion. The town maintains a sense of strict moral values and disciplinary measures in accordance with the Puritan religion. Therefore, the town stands for lawfulness and purity. It serves as a contrast to Hester Prynne’s scarlet letter. The prison that the city was built around serves as a symbol as well. It represents guilt and the human tendency to sin, and it also symbolizes penance. Hester is forced to spend time in jail for committing the sin of adultery, and it is the starting point of Hester’s trek of shame to the scaffold in the market place. The scaffold itself is another symbol Hawthorne uses. Like the prison, it also symbolizes sin and guilt. â€Å"The very ideal of ignominy was embodied and made manifest in this contrivance of wood and iron† (60). It provides the setting of several important scenes in the novel. It is where Hester is forced to stand for three hours as punishment, where Dimmesdale, Pearl, and Hester stand in the night, and where Dimmesdale reveals himself and dies. It is also a symbol of truth because Dimmesdale’s great revelation occurred there.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The second setting is the forest just outside of the town. It proves to be a kind of dramatic foil to the idealistic Puritan society. The Puritans maintain a community that thrives on purity and lack of sin. The forest, on the other hand, is a symbol of lawlessness and desecration. It is shrouded in mystery and retains a dark and foreboding air. The Puritans abhor the forest because it stands as a perfect example of evil. However, the witches that live in the town view it very differently. They appreciate the anonymity the forest provides them. Thus they are free to pay homage to the Black Man in secret. Their presence reiterates the fact that the forest is a symbol of darkness.

Vimy Ridge :: essays research papers

It was at Vimy, in 1917, that all four Divisions of the Canadian Corps attacked simultaneously for the first time, about 100,000 men taking part in the battle. Vimy Ridge was an important part of the Germans' defenses, barring the way to the mines and factories in the Douai plain, which had been of great use to them in their continuation of the war. The very nature of the Ridge gave it strong, built-in defense, but these natural defenses had been supplemented by strong points, elaborate trench-systems and underground tunnels linking natural caves. All previous Allied attempts to capture the Ridge had failed, and there was a strong body of opinion among the Allied commanders that the Ridge was possibly impregnable and incapable of ever being taken by a direct attack.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Preparations for the battle were thorough and extremely detailed. Behind their lines, the Canadians built a full-scale replica of the ground over which their troops would have to attack, giving all units the chance to practice their attacking movements and so understand what they (and neighboring units) were expected to do on the day. Regular reconnaissance patrols, assisted by information gathered from aerial photography, meant that records of changes to the German defenses on the Ridge were always up-to-date. Tunnellers dug â€Å"subterranean† passages under the Ridge - a total of five kilometers in all on four levels - allowing the attacking troops to move close to their jumping-off positions in some safety. Once the battle had begun, these same tunnels allowed the wounded to be brought back under cover and also provided unseen and safe lines of communications.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Infantry attack was preceded by a powerful artillery bombardment, which lasted almost three weeks, involving about 1,000 guns, including huge, 15-inch howitzers. For the first two weeks, some guns were not fired at all, so that the Germans would not be able to locate their positions but eventually, these guns joined in the bombardment, too. Although the shelling was aimed at the German trenches and defensive positions on the Ridge, the Canadians also shelled enemy batteries. They had become adept at locating German gun-positions and had identified the positions of 80 per cent of them.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  April 9th. 1917 - Easter Monday - dawned cold, with freezing rain and sleet. The ground conditions were very bad, with slippery mud waiting for hamper the Canadians as they began their assault. Heavily laden, the men began to cross the shattered No-Man's Land, skirting as best they could the shell-holes and craters, until they came to the muddy, slippery slopes of the Ridge itself.

Information skills and system Essay

A system is a collection of devices that works together to archive a particular purpose. Examples include transport system, school system, digestive system etc. A system can be represented as following: Input – contribution to processing of system Control – commanding processing unit Processing – transforming input to output Storage – where content can be put away and retrieved for later use. Output – the outcome of this system An information system is a system that accepts data (raw material) as input and information (organised data) as output. Examples include a computer, searchable databases etc. An information system is shown below: Purpose – The use and function of the system Information process – The process of converting data into information Participants – All people who are involved in the system Information technology – The equipment and instruction used. Data and information – Data, the input (raw material), and information, the output (processed data). The information process: – Collecting – gathering of data from real world. Eg entering details – Organising – preparing data for the use of other processes. Eg arranging data into tables – Analysing – converting data into useful information, usually more digestible. Eg creating a graph from tables of data – Saving and retrieving – storing data/information for later uses. Eg saving document onto hard drive. – Processing – making change in data/information, including updating, correction of error etc. eg spell check – Transmitting and receiving – exchanging data/information with other information systems, near of remote. Eg internet, e-mailing – Displaying – presentation of information. Usually user-friendly, easy to understand. Eg projecting graph onto screen Digital representation of data: All data is in a central process unit is processed as electrical currents. Data is usually converted into binary decimals, consisting only 1 or 0, where 1 represents ‘on’ and 0 represents ‘off’. Different data types are converted differently, and this will be discussed in tools for organising later. Binary digits: Decimal Binary Each digit in a binary decimal can only be 1 or 0. To convert from decimal x to binary: divide x by highest possible power of 2, then divide left over by highest possible power of 2, repeat until 1 or 0 is left. Eg 25 = 24 x 1 + 23 x 1 + 22 x 0 + 21 x 0 + 20 x 1; therefore 25 decimal = 11001 in binary. To convert binary into decimal you do the reverse. Eg 101011 in decimal is 25 x 1 + 24 x 0 + 23 x 1 + 22 x 0 + 21 x 1 + 20 x 1 = 32 + 0 + 8 + 0 + 2 + 1 = 43 ASCII code system: The ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange) system uses binary decimals to represent different characters. Each digit takes up memory of 1 bit; it takes 8 digits i.e. 8 bits i.e. 1byte to form a character. 1024bytes (210 bytes) = 1KB; 1024KB (220 bytes) = 1MB; 1024MB (230 bytes) = 1GB etc different combinations of any 8 bit forms a character. ASCII includes most if not all symbols, including intangible ones eg Del, Space etc Hexadecimals: Hexadecimal is used in computing when there are too many digits for binary decimal. Eg 255 have 8 digits in binary but only 2 in hexadecimal. It is used for large value numbers such as in the case of html colour panels. Hexadecimals are 16 digit based; 10 – 15 is replaced with A – F respectively. To convert decimal to hexadecimal or hexadecimal to decimal uses the same method as binary conversion, but 16 based. Eg converting 1980 into hexadecimal 1980 = 162 x 7 + 161 x 11 + 160 x 12 Therefore 1980 in hexadecimal is 7BC Eg converting 15FA into decimal 163 x 1 + 162 x 5 + 161 x 15 + 160 x 10 = 4096 + 1280 + 240 + 10 = 5626 Therefore 15FA in decimal is 5626. Social and Ethical issues: Health of human body can be affect through use of information systems. The study of human body and technology is referred as ergonomics. The following are a few health problems the can arise form the use of information system: Tools for information process – Collecting: The collecting process involves deciding what to collect, where to collect form and how to collect. Hardware for collecting different data Text – keyboard, text scanner, voice recognition Numbers – bar code readers, data loggers, keyboard Images – scanner, web cam Video – video recorders, digital cameras Audio – micro-phone, Software for collecting different data Text – Microsoft word Numbers – Microsoft excel Images – scanner software Video – windows media player Audio – Sound recorder Organizing Text – as explained before texts are converted into binary decimals to be processed by other processes, e.g. displaying, analysing etc. Examples of file types: word document, HTML, PDF Numbers – Like text, each numerical number can be converted into a binary number. Common file type: excel, word document Images – An image is an electronic copy of a picture, photo, scanned document etc for display on screen. All images are made of pixels, which are the smallest controllable display element on most screens. There are two types of images: Bitmapped: each pixel is treated individually and represents bits in memory. Their size, colour, tone etc is stored and therefore takes up large amount of memory. The most common bitmapped file types are BMP (high quality images), JPEG (less memory, lossy compression method) and GIF (maximum 256 colours for cartoons, lossless compression by less colour and smaller size). Vector: end points containing information about the line (thickness, colour, gradient etc) common type of file is PNG, but not supported by early versions of internet explorer. Audio – Series of sound measurements. Digital samples are created from real sound waves. The higher frequency of taking samples and the more accurate they are, the better the quality, but the larger the file. Common file types are MIDI and waveform (MP3, MP4 etc). Video – A series of still images recorded at high speed, usually along with audio. Hugh in file size. Common file types include animated GIF, MPEG, Flash etc. data is organized using key frames, one for each image that forms a video/animation when played Analyzing: An example of analyzing data is creating a chart in a spread sheet. Charts and graphs are the most popular ways of analyzing data. They show relationships, trends and comparisons at a glance. The impact (use of colours and symbols to draw attention to important data), speed (obvious) and simplicity (easily understood) made it popular. E.g. software excel, calculator Saving and retrieving: Saving and retrieving is important because it allows edited data to be stored and edited later on. Most information systems have a primary storage and a secondary storage. Primary storage is used to store data/information that needs to be instantly accessible to the CPU. It uses silicon chips on the motherboard to store. RAM random access memory, where frequently used data/information and instructions are stored. When the power is cut off everything in RAM disappears. Data are accessed directly without going through other things. Cache is another example of primary storage. It has the same functions are RAM, but is temporary storage for quick access. ROM read only memory, permanent memory where instructions are stored. These instructions are not to be edited or it may distract the processing of the computer. These instructions are applied when ‘booting’ the computer. Secondary storages are usually portable. Magnetic tape: long thin plastic coated with thin layer of magnetic metal. Magnetic tape can store large amount of data for a cheap price and little space. However it uses sequential memory access, which takes a lot of time. e.g. video tape. Good for back up. Magnetic disk works the same as magnetic tape, but with a circular piece of plastic/metal. E.g. hard disk / floppy disk. Uses random memory access. Optical media uses laser technology to read and write on CD, CDR or CDRE. Written with high power laser to create lots of tiny holes on disk. Flash memory is erasable memory chips e.g. USB, SD card, memory stick etc. Processing: Examples of processing software: audio editing programmes, movie maker, video editors Transmitting and receiving: Buses and ports are used for transmitting and receiving. Buses are connections between CPU and other parts. Ports are sockets that allow an external device to be installed. E.g. e-mail is transmitting and receiving mails. Displaying Printer, monitor speakers etc. most monitors are displayed in pixels. Number of pixels on the screen can be adjusted. Planning, deigning and implementation Understanding the problem This is the first stage of developing a system. It involves identifying the problem that needs to be solved and determining the requirements of the new system through surveys, interviews, analysing existing system, investigation, research etc. Draw up a project plan, specifying who, what how, when; consisting grant charts, schedules, dataflow diagrams, journals, plans etc. Making decisions Determine the feasibility (is it possible) of this new system, analysing potential solutions and makes a recommendation. A feasibility study shows: – nature of problem and overview of existing system – identifying problem – outline constraints (economical, cost vs. benefit; technical, technology requirements and demands; schedule, time wise; organisational, fitting the goal of organization) – restates aim of new system in detail – analyse data collected – suggest solution – no change, new system, investigate etc Designing solution Diagrams such as data flow diagram or system flow chart are used to show context of new system. Data flow diagram is a graphical way of showing the flow of data within the system. O process, ? external entity, ? Data storage, ? data flow. System flow chart shows both flow of data and logic of system. Terminals, input/output, process, database, decision, flow line. Decision trees show all possible decisions and their results. External specification – the appearance of new system Internal specifications – providing technical support to build the system, identify process required by new system, specifications for input data. Information technology – application software may be available e.g. existing accounting softwares. If not then programme has to be written and meets the exact needs of new system. Technical specification – new hardware support need or not. User documentation – user manual for new system. Must be user friendly. Implementing This is the stage of applying the new system. There are three ways of converting to the new system: – Direct conversion – where the new system is completely replacing the old system. Does not allow time to check that the new one works correctly, old system is erased. – Parallel conversion – the new system and old system is run at the same time to allow room for error. – Phrased conversion – gradual implementation of new system. Certain new ones are implemented while other old ones are still operation. Each operation is individually tested. – Pilot conversion – when a small part of the organization uses the new system. If new system fails, old is there to back it up. Training is needed to teach participants to use the new system. The participants include those who are learning and those who are teaching. Who needs to be trained is decided upon their existing knowledge. Testing, evaluating and maintaining System needs to be tested to ensure that it runs correctly. Results are compared to expectations and initial aims. Determines if change is required. Occurs after minor adjustments. Evaluation is the ongoing process of assessing the system to identify areas of weakness that needs to be changed. Maintaining is the modifying of system after installation, upgrading by making minor improvements. IPT year11 exams study notes